![]() ![]() Always ready.’ This demonstrates how parenting and communication styles play an instrumental role in transferring the effects of trauma. One interview noted that her parents imparted lessons such as ‘you always have to have, let’s say, a pair of underwear and a pair of socks at hand so you can take off. These children grew up fearing the outside world and were taught to take extra precautions avoid disasters. Take, for example, a study investigating the offspring of Holocaust survivors in Brazil which noted that parent-victims who had presented an imminent sense of doom, depicting the world as terrifying, raised children who suffered from heightened anxiety, vulnerability and guilt. Parenting styles can therefore either support their children come to terms with their familial history or cause further fragmentation. Children’s social environments are shaped by how their parent-victims discuss their tragic experiences and the lessons they teach about the world. Various studies have pointed to childrearing practices as pathways through which intergenerational trauma is transmitted. Two main modes have been identified through which intergenerational trauma is believed to be transmitted across generations: the social and cultural environments in which children are raised and epigenetic transmission. The transmission of characteristics and resilience patterns beyond the direct sufferers of conflict offers credence to theories about intergenerational trauma and depicts how the echoes of war continue to wreak devastation on populations. They also inherited coping mechanisms and ‘survival mode’ techniques which would have been manifested their parents and grandparent’s behaviours, such as overeating hoarding material possessions food stockpiling overemphasis on food social hostility a lack of trust and cooperation with the wider community and a general disregard for others. These individuals were found to suffer from anxiety, stress, shame, mistrust and fear, amongst other characteristics. Research conducted on the Holodomor famine genocide in Ukraine between 19, for example, studied second and third generation survivors of forced starvation. These vary from group to group but normally manifest in signs associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) such as depression, anxiety and stress as well as behavioural disorders such as aggression and delinquency. Psychological studies have characterised various symptoms exhibited by the children and grandchildren of trauma survivors. ![]() Conflicts studied in this area of research range from the ethnic cleansing of Native Americans and the Rwandan and Cambodian genocides to American soldiers stationed during the Iraq war and the enslavement of Africans as part of the Atlantic slave trade. Research on transgenerational trauma first emerged in the 1960s in the context of Holocaust survivors and has since been adapted to explore the impacts of other violent periods. Instead, the behaviours and characteristics it provokes can be transferred to victims’ offspring, resulting in effects that span several generations. Theories of intergenerational trauma emphasise that trauma is not confined to the individuals that directly experience and witness violence. ![]() ![]() Transgenerational trauma is a rapidly developing field which has attracted significant attention in recent years as researchers strive to understand the long-term psychological, social and cultural impacts of violent conflict. ![]()
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